The Council of Trent and the Catholic Reformation free essay sample

Thesis which within weeks will spread all across the Holy Roman Empire and beyond. Of all the trials that had faced the Catholic Church over the last two centuries, none was more damaging then the Reformation. Faced with the spreading support of Lutheranism by the people and princes of the Empire, the Church required an overhaul unheard of since the Council of Nicaea. After a long delay caused by the inaction of Pope Leo X and conflict with France and the Holy Roman Empire, Pope Paul III (1534-49) called for what becomes known as the Council of Trent. Meeting on and off between 1545-1563, the Council discussed the issues regarding corruption and immorality that had eroded much of its status as the leader of Christian Europe. This part was the Catholic Reformation, the attempt to restore the Church to the moral respectability and social power it had not wielded since the Crusades. We will write a custom essay sample on The Council of Trent and the Catholic Reformation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, the Council also meets to re-affirm the Churches positions on doctoral questions posed by the Protestants, marking the first firm stand the Church makes against the tide of Protestantism. Before any talk of reform can be made, it is necessary to understand the reasons why people felt it was needed. It is also necessary to understand the position of the Church on the eve of the Reformation. The 16th century Church was still recovering from the Great Schism (1378-1413) between the papacy’s claimants in of Rome and Avignon. At its height, the Schism had three pontiffs all claiming the papacy and a diplomatic crisis forming as nations lined up behind the different claimants. Although the Schism ended in 1413 with the election of Martin V (666), the dispute shocks the faith of much of Western Europe’s population, especially since this is when many of the worst Church problems emerge. At the lowest level, there were the parish priests and the monastic orders that people were exposed to every day. Before the rise of the Jesuit Order in the mid 16th century, the average parish priest was little better off than his parishioners. Nearly all of them were illiterate in Latin, the language of Mass, a central part of Catholic life. Even if he was literate and spoken in Latin, it made no difference to the parishioners who attended Mass and listened to what sounded like (and oftentimes was) gibberish. Another complaint was the unusual number of priests who kept â€Å"housekeepers,† often women of marriageable age. Even the religious orders of monks and friars, normally the finest examples of Medieval Christianity, were suffering from worldliness, low numbers, and outright corruption. The lack of clerical celibacy was common at all levels of the Catholic hierarchy, but for reformers, this was only the tip of the iceberg. When one looks up the Catholic hierarchy, the scale of the problem is greatly magnified. As a result of generations of land donations from wealthy laypeople, the Church came to possess a great deal of land, which generated lots of revenue for the bishops and archbishops. Indeed, many of these Churchmen lived like, and more often than not acted like princes, often neglecting their spiritual duties in the process. At the highest levels there were three activities that set them apart from the lower clergy, and one which would have dire implications. One was simony, the purchase and sale of church offices. This was a problem throughout the clergy, and only became a serious problem when Leo X’s predecessors in the mid 15th century had conceded the power to make the appointments, the power of investiture, to the strengthening monarchs of Europe in exchange for their support. Simony would play a role in the rise of Protestantism along with two other issues plaguing the higher management; plurality and absenteeism. A Catholic bishop is required by Church law to in the diocese he represents; as such he can only have one office at a time. As the 15th century closed and the 16th century went on, these restrictions were flouted regularly, especially by the wealthiest Church leaders. One of these was Albert of Mainz, who was cash poor after buying his new diocese in Magdeburg for his new position in the in the College of Cardinals. He later borrowed an equally massive amount ducts for the purchase of the office of bishop of Mainz, a debt that he arranged with Pope Leo X to pay back through the sale of Indulgences. An Indulgence is a certificate that is given to a penitent in exchange for a â€Å"donation† to the Church that depended on the sin. Indulgences had been used before as a form of quick revenue, but the claims made by the bishop’s chief salesmen, a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel, were beyond what doctrine claimed they were. Tetzel highlights this new claim in his most remembered slogan â€Å"Once the coin in coffer rings a soul from purgatory springs. † These claims proved too much for Professor Martin Luther at the University of Wittenberg, who quickly made his concerns known. The Protestant Reformation began n 1517; the Council of Trent did not meet until 1545. By this time, much of northern and central Europe was now protestant. In the years between the excommunication of Luther in 1521, there had calls for a meeting of high Churchmen to reform the Church, thus depriving Protestants of one of their main issues. Reformist clergy were very vocal in their desire for such a council, but they were not the only ones. Secular Catholics such as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V were also strong in their support for calling a council, although initially everyone saw something different in the Reformation. Charles V especially wanted a peaceful solution, both as a very devout Catholic, and as King of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire because it was his territory which were being destabilized by Luther’s teachings, and flare-ups of violence were not uncommon within the Empire, as well as the Spanish Netherlands. Pope Leo X refused to call for a council however, due to his attention being diverted to politics in the Italian Peninsula and the designs of French King Francis I on northern Italy. Pope Paul III (1534-1549), a reform-minded Pontiff, was willing to do what Leo X would not, and in 1542 he called for the assembly of a council in Mantua. By this time, not only had parts of Germany and the Spanish Netherlands fallen to the Protestants, but also England and the Scandinavian countries. Emperor Charles V resisted the idea however, because he wanted the Council to meet in Imperial territory. A compromise was struck, and the venue moved to the city of Trent, an Italian city controlled by the Empire. The Council met on and off for eighteen years, from 1545 to 1563. However, the dates of the Council show they were not meeting for much of the time inactive for most of the time, which can be broken into three short periods: 1545-1547, 1551-1552, and 1562-1563. The Council met for only four of those eighteen years, and they spanned the lives of five popes: Paul III, Julius III, Marcellus II, Paul IV, and Pius IV. The reason behind the frequent disruptions and postponements of the Council was most often disagreement between the pope and Charles V on what subjects would be discussed; doctrine first or reform first? the pope’s policies toward Charles’ war with France, and the fortunes of the ongoing conflict. Francis I, the Valois king of France, proved even less cooperative then Charles, first wholly refusing to attend the Council, going so far as to forbid the publishing of the bull of convocation in his Kingdom, and initially refusing to allow French bishops to attend the various sessions. Francis’ agenda was one of completely blocking the rise of Charles’ Hapsburg Empire in European politics. Francis went so far as to ally himself with the Protestant Elector of Saxony, a sign to the pope that France would favor its own national interests over those of the Churches. For his part, Charles also wanted peace with the Protestants, although for reasons different than those of France. Whereas Francis was relying partially on Protestant support as a strategy in the ongoing conflicts between France and the Empire, Charles wanted peace because of how badly divided the Empire was and would continue to be so long as Catholics and Protestants continued to fight each other. At the Council, he was pushing for less of an emphasis on doctrinal questions, which neither side would compromise one in favor of discussing reform, thinking that such a move could soften tensions with Protestants with signs of substantial Church reform, and that this would make it easier for the Protestants to negotiate doctrine more amiably. Ultimately, there were two issues the Council met to address: the avocation of reform and the condemnation of the Protestant heretics. In the immediate background, though, were the issues of conciliation, as both sides wanted a compromise with the Protestants to further their own ends, and nationalism, which explains why the council took so long to assemble and took so long to reconvene. The Italians, who were the majority of attendees at the Council, were less interested in conciliation then France and the HRE, but only because they knew that the doctrinal breach of the Protestants was too large to bridge. The Council of Trent would walk a tightrope between these competing issues from start to finish. Once the Council underway, there were questions about how they would continue to proceed and what direction they would take. Paul III wanted the Council to start with doctrinal questions first, than the Council could take up reform. Over the objections of Charles V, Paul III reached a Compromise under which both doctrine and reform were addressed simultaneously. Charles V wanted it the other way. So what decisions did the Council come to and how effective were they in stemming the tide of Protestantism? The Council of Trent, despite occasional periods of long disbandment made many decisions for the church when it was in session in an effort to establish the traditions and doctrines of the church, as well as to correct the corruption within it. Because of politics, leadership changes in the Vatican, and a war between France and the HRE, the Council of Trent lasted for 18 years from (1545-63). There were three periods when they convened for a total of 25 sessions between them. The first period of the Council of Trent (1545-1547) was convened by Pope Paul III and covers sessions 1-10. The decrees of this period of the Council of Trent deal primarily with the affirmation of doctrine concerning the proper use of scripture. Amongst the most important things to come from this period is the reaffirmation of the Latin bible and that only the clergy can truly understand its message. This is to strike at one of Martin Luther’s great achievements. While in hiding in Castle Wartburg, Luther worked to translate the bible into vernacular German, on his belief that people do not a priest to understand god. Instead, they can read the Bible for themselves and come to their own conclusion. Also included is the reaffirmation of good works as necessary for absolution of sins. Amongst the decrees for reform, the councilmen call for the bishops to see that the priests are learned enough to use Latin, and if not to either hire someone to teach them, or get someone else to preach in his place. Even if the people cannot understand Latin, a literate parish priest can speak loud and with authority rather than quietly mutter gibberish from the alter that feels close enough to Latin. The Church only was to have the right to interpret the Bible, good works were also needed to obtain salvation, and Bishops and priests were to preach regularly. This session also reaffirmed the seven sacraments. The second session (May 1, 1551-April 28, 1552), was convened by Pope Julius III and was not as successful as the other two. It may have done more, but it was cut short by the defeat of Emperor Charles V by a Protestant force under Maurice, Elector of Saxony in the neighboring region of Tirol. It was further held up by the death of Marcellus II, and the election of the staunch arch-Catholic Paul IV, who does not re-convene the Council. As it only came up with few reaffirmations. They upheld the importance of the Eucharist as a sacrament, and in the same way, they would uphold the doctrine of transubstantiation. This is another example of the Church clarifying its position in comparison to the Protestants, making reconciliation close to impossible. The third session of the Council of Trent (Jan, 1559-Dec, 1563) was convened by Pope Pius IV. This is the final period of the Council of Trent, and they shift their focus to the clergy and there competence. For a long time, many people in Europe probably thought clerical celibacy was a bad joke. From the parish priest and his housekeeper to Alexander VI, who is widely believed to have slept with his own daughter. By taking carnal sins amongst the clergy more serious, it goes a long way towards rebuilding the confidence of your worshipers. Also, the veneration of images and relics was upheld, and the Pope was distinguished as the Vicar of Christ on earth, and The Council of Trent essentially put the Pope in a much stronger position than before. Astoundingly, the doctrine of indulgences, a major cause of the Lutheran revolt, was reaffirmed. Another reform not mentioned was adding the Index of Prohibited Books in 1559. This was added with the intention of preventing heretical ideas from â€Å"corrupting† those who still remain in the Catholic Church. They also have a decree for the establishment of standardized selection processes for the bishops and Cardinals, making simony considerably less problematic. Just to make it better for the churchgoing laypeople, the priest should now explain why the sacraments are important and how they work. This also applies to the scripture, but the most important change is that these explanations are to be in vernacular. While the mass is still in Latin, the themes and messages that the stories are trying to tell can be explained by the priest. Not only does this serve to reinforce in the minds of the parishioners the importance of the seven sacraments, but it removes a critical barrier to understanding, making you feel much more involved in the service then you otherwise would be. So how did the Council of Trent do for the Church? Most of the reforms of the Council of Trent benefited the Church, but there were corrupt holdouts such as Indulgences that were reaffirmed. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the seven sacraments, and improved the mass with vernacular explanations, to bring the Church back to where it always had been, as well as create new enthusiasm in the Catholic populations. Many major elements of the Church, such as the position of the pope and the need to do good works were reaffirmed to, yet the Doctrine that started all of the Reformation, the Doctrine of Indulgences was also reaffirmed. This time, the Council was careful to set what an Indulgence could forgive. Although this doctrine was not entirely corrupt in nature, it was just too profitable o throw away entirely. The Council of Trent was established by the Catholic Church a way to firmly establish what its doctrine is following the initial chaos of the Protestant Revolution. It was a way to clean out many entrenched systems of corruption. It was partially a reaction to issues raised by Protestant reformers. The reforms of the Council of Trent generally strengthened the Church hierarchy, empowered the pope, and re energized Catholic Europe now assured of their Church, old as it was, was not going anywhere.

My sisters essay this website forced me to post free essay sample

Research Assignment In the book, One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest, the patients of the asylum are delineated as different instead of insane. They are portrayed positively as the people who could not conform into the standard image of a sane person set by the Combine, while the people who are deemed as normal or sane are looked at like they are puppets to the Combine. The book argues that insanity is fitting into society and accepting its beliefs without questioning the social system. This idea presented by he book is largely applicable to the 60s due to the radical social change happening in this time period. The idea the book is presenting is relative to the Federalist papers or James Madisons fear of the minority being over taken by the majority and is universally applicable. One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest explains insanity as being a mindless follower, presents the structure of the mental institution to be similar to communism, supports the idea of independent thinking being a natural and positive reaction, and represents social policy change in the 60s having to do with racism, egregation, and failing trust in the government. We will write a custom essay sample on My sisters essay this website forced me to post or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page StellaSee. Redefining the Idea of insanity in Ken Keseys One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest. HubPages. N. p. , 18 Jan. 2013. web. 09 Dec. 2013. The author, known by her username StellaSee, introduces themes and symbols like A passion for homogenization, The fellowship of the Asylum, and she describes McMurphy as a sacrificial lamb. Focusing on her theme of A passion for homogenization she says that the patients are rejects from society and are so fearful that they voluntarily sign themselves up for treatment at the asylum. She also describes the ward as a mirror to society that promotes uniformity and has a passion for homogenization'. She also describes the patients as not insane but different saying that McMurphys role in freeing the patients is to give them the confidence to stand up to the wolves which are symbols of officials for the Combine like Big Nurse and Chief Bromdens mother. She contrasts the sane and insane, and describes OFOTCCN to change the roles of these to synonym by making the insane, the mental ward patients, appear sane and the sane, people controlling the and/or utside of the ward, as insane. One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest: An Allegory of Communism. One Flew over the Cuckoo S Nest an Allegory of Communism. N. p. , n. d. web. 16 Dec. 2013. The author of One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest: An Allegory of Communism known as khaiqle says that One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest is an allegory to communism Madden, Fred. Sanity and Responsibility: Big Chief as Narrator and Executioner. Modern Fiction Studies 32. 2 (Summer 1986): 203-217. Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Jeffrey W. Hunter. Vol. 341. Detroit: Gale, 2013. Literature Resource Center. Web. 16 Dec. 2013. In this critical essay, Sanity and Responsibility: Big Chief as Narrator and Executioner, Madden argues that Chief Bromden is the protagonist and that McMurphy Just serves to help the Chief gain his independence, self-awareness, and identity back from the Combine

boy scouting essays

boy scouting essays Boy Scouting has effected the lives of many young men between the age of twelve and eight-teen. Over one million boys have been effected in America alone since 1910 when Boy Scouting was incorporated. But the story of Boy Scouting started before 1910. The Story begins in 1844, when the YMCA was founded in London. The YMCA laid the foundation for the largest organization for boys. Within the next fifteen years three of the most important figures in boy scouting were born. They are Daniel Carter Beard, a great outdoorsmen, Robert Baden Powell, the founder of boy scouting, and Ernest Thompson Seton, who was also skilled in the outdoors. Then in 1876, the First Boys Club was established. This was Americas first version of the Boy Scouts. This was soon followed by a number of organizations from 1902 until 1907. Some of these include Woodcraft Indians, founded by Seton; Sons of Daniel Boone, founded by Beard; the Boys Club and the Brownsea Island Experiment. In 1910 Boy Scouts came to America officially. The legendary story goes as follows. One foggy day in 1909 and American Businessman named William D. Boyce lost his way in the fog. So he stopped under a street light to read his map when he was approached by a young British boy. The boy asked the man if he could help and the man said certainly. The boy showed the man to his destination. When the man offered the boy a tip the boy responded that he would not except anything from the man because he was a scout. Boyce became very interested in this and later met with Lord Robert Baden-Powell. He was a famous British general who had founded the scouting movement in Great Britain. He was so impressed with what he learned that he brought the movement home with him. On February 8, 1910, William D. Boyce officially incorporated Boy Scouts of America. Later in that same year, the first scout handbook was published. It was en ...

No Medical Degree No Problem for These Five Healthcare Jobs

No Medical Degree No Problem for These Five Healthcare Jobs Healthcare is one of the world’s fastest growing industries, promising everything from high pay to job security to workers entering the field. According to statistics from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), total employment in occupations related to healthcare is expected to skyrocket by 11 percent - a total of 15.6 million jobs - in the decade between 2012 and 2022. Let’s countdown five of the most promising healthcare jobs that don’t require a medical degree. 5. Pharmacy TechniciansMinimal educational requirements - a high school diploma or its equivalent - and a growth rate of 20 percent over a 10-year period earn pharmacy technicians a spot on this list.Working alongside pharmacists in pharmacies, grocery stores, drug stores and hospitals, pharmacy technicians help pharmacists with the dispensation of prescription medications.Most pharmacy technicians learn through on-the-job training, although there are some secondary education programs. Some sta tes require that pharmacy techs complete a training program accredited by the American Society of Health System Pharmacists.4. Dispensing OpticiansWith a projected growth rate of 23 percent between 2012 and 2022, the number of jobs for workers in this field is predicted to rise by nearly 16,000 during that same period of time.Dispensing opticians work in stores that sell visual aids, including glasses, contact lenses and other optical goods. Based on prescriptions from optometrists and ophthalmologists, dispensing opticians are responsible for fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses, as well as assisting customers in deciding on the right products.The median annual salary for dispensing opticians is just over $22,300, although the top 10 percent may earn nearly $53,000. In addition to a high school diploma, on-the-job training is usually sufficient to obtain a position as a dispensing optician.3. Dental AssistantsA projected growth rate of 25 percent between 2012 and 2022 earns denta l assistants a spot on the list of fastest growing healthcare careers.Depending on where they work, dental assistants may be responsible for a wide range of tasks - from scheduling appointments to taking X-rays to providing patient care.While there’s no single path to becoming a dental assistant, some states do require graduation from an accredited program as well as the passing of a state exam. Additionally, many community colleges offer year-long certificate programs, as well as two-year programs which convey an associate’s degree. The typical dental assistant school curriculum include a mix of classroom, laboratory and clinical work.Dental assistants earn an average salary of $34,500, although top earners may bring home nearly $50,000.2. Diagnostic Medical Sonographers and Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians, Including Vascular TechnologistsWith a job outlook projected at 39 percent, these imaging experts are expected to be in great demand in the coming ye ars.Largely employed in hospital settings, diagnostic medical sonographers and cardiovascular technologists and technicians are trained in the use of special equipment in order to create images and conduct tests used by physicians to diagnose medical conditions as well as to aid during surgical procedures.With an average pay of $60,350 per year, these professionals do require some formal education and qualifications, such as an associate’s degree and postsecondary certificate. Some diagnostic medical sonographers and cardiovascular technologists and technicians choose to pursue bachelor’s degree programs in sonography and in cardiovascular and vascular technology.1. Home Health AidesA projected growth rate of a staggering 48 percent between 2012 and 2022 earns home health aides the top spot on this list. Requiring less than a high school diploma and a short period of on-the-job training, home health aides can expect to enjoy unprecedented job security in the years ahea d.Working in a variety of settings, home health aides help people - from seniors to the disabled or cognitively impaired - who require assistance with basic daily activities.As more and more seniors make the choice to age in place, home health aides will become an increasingly vital part of the healthcare system. And while the current median salary is just under $21,000, the increased need for these workers is expected to drive pay upward.While doctors may be the first thing that comes to mind when you think of healthcare professions, there are plenty of other career paths for aspiring members of the healthcare industry. Each of these five professions offers extraordinary job security, along with educational and training requirements far less strenuous than the ones imposed upon doctors. The result? Unprecedented opportunities for people looking to get a foot in the door of the in-demand healthcare industry.

Strategic Management report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Strategic Management report - Essay Example It is this factor alone that has got it 70% of the US market in 2000 and about 50% share of the market outside the US. Over the last 3 years Gillette has been trying to recover its lost glory that it enjoyed for the decade up to 1997. In 1986 its sales were $ 2.8 billion and rose to $ 9.08 billion in 1987. Since then it has hovered around the $ 9 billion and this stagnation has eroded its stock value but fortunately not its market share. Due to its innovative approach to product development which Gillette has maintained for over a century, it retains market leadership in this segment. Gillette has unsuccessfully tried to add to its product portfolio for over 50 year. The redeeming feature has been the Safety Razor sections for men and women. A SWOT analysis of the product also suggests that this core product range is the company’s real strength. The weakness is the quarterly sales strategy of loading sales to retailers. The opportunity lies in improving its sales strategies. There are really no threats to the company from are competition. While the majority of shares is held in public but a sizable stakeholders are employees, both present and retired ones. The single largest share holder is Buffet Warren who holds about 10% of the company stock. They are worried over the declining stock prices especially since 1997 through 2001. The decline has been sharp from a valuation of $ 4.8 billion to $ 1.9 billion. They need a quick turnaround or they fear the company will be a takeover target once again. Historically Gillette has always scored over the competition primarily due to its customer loyalty which has come about due to its innovations in products. This is its main strength even today. It also has a wide distribution base worldwide and its products range from entry level to premium level catering across all segments of customers. It can therefore rely on its R & D to continue to offer strong product lines in this core sector. It

War on Terrorism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

War on Terrorism - Research Paper Example The invasion of Afghanistan is seen as the first action of this war, and initially involved forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Afghani Northern Alliance. Since the initial invasion period, these forces have been augmented by troops from Germany, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In 2005-2006, Canadian forces there will be increased to over 2000 troops. Canada also supported coalition efforts in Operation Archer, Operation Apollo, Operation Altair, and Operation Athena as part of the ongoing support for Operation Enduring Freedom. The Canadian government, however, does not recognize Iraq as part of the informal network of support for the attacks of 9/11 and as such, has declined to send Forces to that theatre of operations, although scores of them are on assignment to US Forces - mostly assisting in AWACS operations. (Richard Miniter. October 2005) Support for the United States cooled when America made clear its determination to invade Iraq in late 2002. The United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, South Korea, Poland, and Australia joined the "coalition of the willing", unconditionally supporting U.S.-led military action. Other countries, including Canada, Germany, France, Pakistan, and New Zealand opposed military action and blocked American attempts to pass a UN resolution explicitly backing military action. Countries that did not participate in the invasion but who have made themselves parts of the reconstruction and peacekeeping efforts include Ukraine, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Romania. Many of the 'Coalition of the willing' countries also have sent troops to Afghanistan, particular neighboring Pakistan which has disowned its earlier support for the Taliban and contributed tens of thousands of soldiers to the conflict. Support for the "War on Terrorism": Supporters assert that democracy in traditionally authoritarian countries has a transformative power that will add to peace and stability. Supporters downplay civilian casualties by arguing that many who live near terrorist cells are likely to support them materially, although this would imply that western tax-payers should be considered legitimate targets by those opposing western military action. Some argue that war could act as a deterrent against terrorists, demonstrating to potential recruits that they would face certain retribution. This argument may hold less water in reference to suicide terrorism, or when terrorists expect to become martyrs, but can be argued to deter such attacks by weakening the logistical base which provides martyrs with explosives and points them toward effective targets. (Gary C. Schroen. May 2005) Some analysts argue that democracy in the Middle East will elevate Islamists, including radicals, who will use democratic institutions to gain power but then implement their autocratic agenda. Democracy can also lead to instability. In short, things may get worse before they get better, which may be bad news for the US. Many however believe that in the long run increased democratic governance or the break up of static autocracies will lead to a better outcome than the status quo even if the emerging governments initially oppose U.S. policies. Some furthermore argue that any type of somewhat democratic government would find more common ground with the U.S. than the existing ones even if rapprochement was gradual and difficult.

Paul’s Teachings Essay Example for Free

Paul’s Teachings Essay 1. Essay on the Epistle to the Galatians The New Testament Book Epistle to the Galatians is ascribed by the Catholic Church to St. Paul but now believed to be written by early Christian missionary Paul of Tarsus to the early Christian communities in Galatia, then a Roman province. It was an intensely personal letter wherein Paul primarily tackled the circumcision issue during those early days of Christianity. The issue of circumcising Gentile converts, considered to be culturally offensive to Romans, was then being hotly debated. In the Epistle, Paul cautions against the introduction of Jewish practices, such as circumcision, into the community of Christians. The circumcision debate written in Galatians was important for St. Paul because he wanted to point out to the Gentiles that the prescriptions that regulated the day-to-day lives of the Jews under the Law of Moses are meant to lead men to salvation through Christ. Some Galatian converts or Judaizers at that time insisted that observance of the Law, including circumcision, abstinence and certain ritual purifications, was prerequisite to being good or perfect Christians. During the Old Testament, circumcision served as a mans public pledge to the complete observance of Mosaic Law. In Pauls argument against circumcision, he mentions Old Testament figures such as Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, Sarah and Hagar in order to explain and illustrate what it means to follow Gods advice ( 4:21, Galatians). Using the story of the birth of Isaac and Ishmael, Paul stresses that Christians should genuinely believe and follow all of Gods advise, not only religious traditions but more so, following the examples of Christ. In addressing the circumcision issue in the Epistle, Paul thereby explains that by itself, the Mosaic Law had no power to save because salvation needs individual faith and the grace of Jesus. 2. Essay on the Books of Timothy I, Timothy II and Titus The New Testament Books First Epistle to Timothy, Second Epistle to Timothy and Epistle to Titus are three Pastoral Epistles attributed to St. Paul but now believed to be from Paul of Tarsus. They are collectively termed as the Pastoral Epistles chiefly because the letters are addressed to pastors or heads of the early Church regarding proper handling of the ministry. Together, the Epistles instruct the Bishop Timothy and the Christian worker Titus on the general principles regarding community order and faith. Specifically, the greater part of the Timothy I is devoted to instructions on the proper ordering of Christian community life for it to function smoothly. It also admonishes Timothy on the duties of the bishops and deacons in terms of preaching, praying in public and care for the Church members. Timothy II, on the other stresses the faithful dispensing of the responsibilities by church leaders and provides encouragement to the Bishop. The Pastoral Epistles talk of the proper conduct of both men and women; proper behavior when inside the Church; respect for old and young people; treatment of elderly and rules for the enrollment of widows and other prescriptions for good and Christian behavior. They also talk of how to remain steadfast in faith by rejecting false teachings and safeguarding the truths in the Church. Such is a suggestion of the pressures against and the corresponding struggles to strengthen the faith within the community. The administrative activities, especially as found in Timothy I tell us that the early Church then was already, or at least beginning to be, structured and orderly and made up of united members. This is seen, for one, in the discussion on the selection of church leaders. These three Epistles definitely communicate to us the difficulties of the early Church. The part in Timothy II wherein Paul exhorted the Bishop to be patient in the face of persecution is best illustrates the serious problems they encountered. The recommendations in the Timothy I and Titus regarding the kind of character needed for the leaders of the Church suggest the earnest efforts to build and fortify what we know now to be a heavily challenged Church back then. In gist, Timothy I and II and Titus portray the picture of the Christian community during the incipient period of the Church. The Books show that times were hard but that the early Christians, herein guided by Paul, mustered their faith and effort for the ministry.